| Children and adolescents |
| Lee (2025) | Adolescents, n=250 (Korea) | Video features (length, entertainment value, algorithm) act as immersion mechanisms; concerns over long-term attention span |
| Jing (2025) | Children/adolescents, ages 6–18 (Korea) | Rapid short-form adoption may be negatively associated with cognitive development |
| University students |
| Dhillon et al. (2025) | Medical students, n=200 (Indonesia) | Longer viewing associated with shorter sustained attention; negative correlation (p < .001) |
| Haliti-Sylaj & Sadiku (2024) | Engineering undergraduates, n=150 (Kosovo) | Strong negative correlation between short-form viewing and sustained attention (r=−0.45, SART) |
| General adults |
| Siehoff (2023) | Adults, n=191 (mean 25.9 yrs; Netherlands) | Heavy users showed weakened control of internal distraction and reduced sustained attention (ATTC) |
| Mark (2023) | Knowledge workers and college students (mixed occupations) | Mean screen-attention duration (screen-switching interval, a behavioral index distinct from cognitive sustained attention) declined: 150 s (2004) → 75 s (2012) → 47 s (2016-21) |
| Yan et al. (2024) | Adults (EEG experiment; n not reported) | Mobile short-form use negatively affected attention functions; cognitive entrenchment (EEG) |
| Opara et al. (2025) | Students (n not reported) | Resource depletion and weakened self-control alongside heightened selective attention and passive fixation |
| Content data/secondary literature |
| Ha & Kim (2025) | TikTok videos, 19,084 log records (non-human data) | Negative/neutral-affect content associated with digital immersion and cognitive resource depletion |
| Head (2025) | Synthesis of 2019–2025 empirical studies (narrative review) | Sustained short-form exposure may be linked to attention deficits and cognitive decline |