Table 4. Comparison of human factors (HF) training requirements by aviation license in Korea

Ab-initio course (ATO)	HF subject/topic	HF hours/total theory hours (%)	Recurrent HF training
Flight dispatcher	Human performance	45h(10.98%)	State-mandated detailed curriculum:Aviation physiology & psychologySHEL model & TEM(MOLIT Notice No. 2023-458, Annex 11)
Commercial pilot	Human performance (incl. threat & error mgmt)	45h(8.82%)
Private pilot	Human performance (incl. threat & error mgmt)	15h(8.33%)
Air traffic controller (advanced, initial)	HF competency 2 h+human error 2 h	4h(7.14%)
Air traffic controller	Human performance (incl. threat & error mgmt)	15h(4.35%)
Flight instructor	Human performance (incl. threat & error mgmt)	5h(3.70%)
Multi-crew pilot (MPL)	Human performance & limitations (incl. TEM)	20h(3.08%)
Aircraft maintenance engineer	Human performance (incl. threat & error mgmt)	45h(1.87%)	Min. 4 hrs/year(No detailed curriculum specified)(Flight Safety Regulations for Aeroplanes, MOLIT Notice No. 2024-828, 9.1.19.13)

*Note The contrast is stark at the recurrent stage. For ATS personnel, Annex 11 prescribes a detailed HF curriculum, whereas for maintenance engineers only a minimum of "at least 4 hours per year" is required, with no detailed curriculum. The formalistic operation criticized in this study corresponds to this recurrent stage.